Water conservation in India: Key trends & current landscape

Water conservation has always been a critical concern for India, a country where monsoon-dependent agriculture and growing urbanization put immense pressure on water resources. Since independence, key milestones such as the construction of major dams, the launch of watershed management programs, and the promotion of rainwater harvesting have shaped India’s water conservation efforts. In recent years, global initiatives like the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and innovations in water recycling have further underscored the urgency of sustainable water management. While India has made progress with campaigns like Jal Shakti Abhiyan and state-level RWH mandates, challenges like groundwater depletion and climate change demand even stronger action. With rising water stress, it is imperative for India to scale up conservation strategies through policy reforms, technology adoption, and community participation.

Water Conservation Trends and Advancements in India

In recent years, India has witnessed a shift towards innovative and sustainable water conservation methods to tackle its growing water crisis. From harnessing rainwater to optimizing usage through technology and community initiatives, several key trends are shaping the country’s water management landscape. Below, we explore some of the most impactful approaches, including rainwater harvesting, smart metering, community-led water management, micro-irrigation, and wastewater recycling and reuse, highlighting their role in securing India’s water future.

1. Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has gained significant traction in India as a simple yet effective method to conserve water. India receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 1,170 millimeters, totaling about 4,000 billion cubic meters (BCM) of precipitation each year. Despite this high volume, a significant portion remains unutilized. Estimates suggest that approximately 1,200 BCM of water runs off into the sea annually, even after accounting for environmental and salt-export requirements.

The Ministry of Urban Affairs and Poverty Alleviation made rainwater harvesting mandatory for new buildings with a roof area of more than 100 square meters in 2001. Many states, including Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, have also made RWH mandatory for buildings. Innovations in RWH systems, such as modular storage tanks and filtration units, are making it easier for households and industries to adopt this practice. In fact, the Delhi government has implemented a financial assistance scheme to support the installation of RWH structures.

2. Smart Water Management

The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in water management is transforming how water flow is monitored and conserved. Smart meters, sensors, and data analytics are being used to detect leaks, monitor water quality, and optimize water usage in urban and agricultural sectors. 

For example, the Government of India’s Jal Jeevan Mission leverages technology to provide real-time data on water supply in rural areas. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) has been actively implementing sensor-based Internet of Things (IoT) solutions to monitor and provide real-time data on water supply systems in rural areas. This initiative aims to ensure transparency and improve service delivery by continuously monitoring water supply parameters such as flow, pressure, and quality. The collected data is integrated into a centralized dashboard, enabling timely interventions and informed decision-making.

Government of India has issued an advisory to States and Union Territories to implement sensor-based Internet of Things (IoT) solutions for monitoring rural water supply. States such as Goa, Gujarat, and Bihar have pioneered the deployment of these IoT sensors embedded in the drinking water supply infrastructure. 

3. Wastewater Recycling and Reuse

Wastewater treatment and reuse are becoming increasingly important in water-scarce regions. Cities like Chennai and Bengaluru are investing in advanced wastewater treatment plants to recycle sewage water for industrial and non-potable uses. Decentralized wastewater treatment systems are also being promoted to reduce the burden on centralized treatment plants.

The Ministry of Jal Shakti has mandated that cities recycle and reuse at least 20% of the water they consume, as outlined in the National Framework on Safe Reuse of Treated Water.

The Revised Strategy Paper on Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Peri-Urban Agriculture in India by NITI Aayog promotes using treated wastewater to address freshwater scarcity in agriculture. It highlights environmental benefits, nutrient reuse (nitrogen, phosphorus), and the need for supportive policies, advanced treatment technologies, and capacity building. The paper aligns with India’s circular economy goals, aiming for sustainable water management while reducing pollution from untreated wastewater.

4. Micro-Irrigation Techniques

In agriculture, which consumes over 80% of India’s freshwater resources, micro-irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler irrigation are gaining popularity. These methods reduce water wastage and improve crop yields. Government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) provide subsidies to farmers for adopting micro-irrigation systems.

5. Community-Led Water Management

Community participation has been crucial for sustainable water conservation. Initiatives like Jal Shakti Abhiyan and Neeru-Meeru in Andhra Pradesh [“Neeru-Meeru,” meaning “Water and You” in Telugu, is a water conservation and poverty alleviation initiative launched by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in May 2000] have successfully engaged local communities in water conservation activities such as building check dams, desilting ponds, and reviving traditional water bodies.

Government Policies and Initiatives

The Indian government has launched several policies and programs to address water scarcity and promote conservation:

1. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), launched in August 2019, aims to provide piped water to all rural households. As of March 2025, over 80.2% of rural homes have tap water connections, up from 16.7% in 2019. The mission’s budget is extended until 2028 (Hon’ble Finance Minister announced this during her budget speech 2025- 26) with enhanced funding. States are responsible for implementation, water quality monitoring, and testing using labs and Field Test Kits (FTKs). The government emphasizes community participation, including training women for water testing.

2. Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY)

Launched in 2020, Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL), is a ₹6,000 crore scheme focused on improving groundwater management in 8,203 water-stressed Gram Panchayats across seven states. Funded equally by the World Bank and the Government of India, it encourages community participation and the use of technology for monitoring and conserving groundwater resources. The scheme has two components: Institutional Strengthening (₹1,400 crore) for data-driven governance and Incentive-Based Funding (₹4,600 crore), rewarding states based on groundwater data transparency, water security planning, convergence of government schemes, efficient water use, and improved groundwater levels. Better-performing states receive additional funds. 

Groundwater regulation in India is primarily managed at the state level, with various states enacting their own laws to regulate groundwater extraction and prevent over-exploitation. At the national level, the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) oversees groundwater development and management. The CGWA issues ‘No Objection Certificates’ (NOCs) for groundwater extraction by industries, infrastructure projects, and mining operations to ensure sustainable usage and prevent over-exploitation.

​As of July 2023, 21 Indian states and Union Territories (UTs) have adopted and implemented groundwater legislation, aligning with the Model Bill circulated by the Union Jal Shakti Ministry. Below is a summary of these states and UTs, along with notable highlights of their groundwater regulations:​ please refer to the annexure section.

3. National Water Policy (NWP)

The National Water Policy (2012) emphasizes integrated water resource management, efficient water use, and the adoption of modern technologies to address India’s growing water challenges. It recognizes water as a scarce and valuable resource, advocating basin-level planning, demand management, groundwater conservation, and climate resilience. The policy promotes the reuse of treated wastewater, conservation of traditional water bodies, and rational water pricing to ensure sustainability. It also stresses equitable distribution, decentralized governance, and community participation in water management. By balancing water availability, usage, and environmental preservation, the policy aims to create a resilient and efficient water management framework for the country.

The Government of India is working on revising the National Water Policy to address current water sector challenges. In 2019, the Ministry of Jal Shakti formed a committee of independent experts, led by Dr. Mihir Shah, to draft a new National Water Policy. The committee submitted its report in 2021; however, as of now, this draft policy has not been officially adopted or tabled for consideration in Parliament.

Water being a state subject, the central government provides technical and financial support to states for water conservation and management. Key initiatives include the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), which aims to provide potable tap water to rural households by 2024, and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation & Urban Transformation (AMRUT), focused on urban water supply. AMRUT 2.0 extends these efforts to all statutory towns, promoting water security and self-reliance with a total outlay of ₹2.77 lakh crore.

Other programs include aquifer mapping, groundwater recharge projects, and campaigns like “Sahi Fasal” (encouraging water-efficient crops) and “Catch the Rain” (rainwater harvesting). The Jal Shakti Abhiyan focuses on water conservation and resource management, while the Water Heroes contest promotes awareness and public participation in water conservation efforts.

4. Namami Gange Program

This flagship program aims to clean and conserve the Ganga River by addressing pollution and promoting sustainable water use. It includes initiatives like afforestation, riverfront development, and the construction of sewage treatment plants.

The Namami Gange Programme, launched in 2014, is an integrated mission aimed at the conservation and rejuvenation of the River Ganga and its tributaries. Initially allocated ₹20,000 crore for five years up to March 2021, the program has been extended to March 2026 with an additional ₹22,500 crore. For the fiscal year 2025-26, the National Ganga Programme has been allocated ₹3,400 crore to enhance sewage treatment capacity, improve water quality, and regulate industrial waste discharge, with the goal of achieving prescribed bathing standards by 2025.

The Ganga River basin, covering 27% of India’s landmass and supporting about 47% of its population, is the second most water-stressed basin in the country. The vision for Ganga rejuvenation focuses on ensuring “Aviral Dhara” (continuous flow), “Nirmal Dhara” (unpolluted flow), and maintaining its geological and ecological integrity. Key interventions under the program include pollution abatement, improving ecology and flow, strengthening people-river connections, and facilitating research and policy.

Key Objectives of the National Ganga Plan (Namami Gange Programme):

1. Pollution Control – Setting up sewage treatment plants (STPs) and effluent treatment plants (ETPs).
   
2. Riverfront Development – Cleaning ghats, crematoria, and waste management.
   
3. Biodiversity Conservation – Protecting aquatic life, including the Gangetic dolphin.
   
4. Afforestation & Wetland Conservation – Planting trees along the riverbanks to prevent soil erosion.
   
5. Public Awareness & Participation – Engaging local communities, NGOs, and students in conservation efforts.
   
6. Industrial Effluent Management – Monitoring and regulating wastewater discharge from industries.

As of January 31, 2025, a total of 492 projects valued at ₹40,121.48 crore have been initiated, with 307 completed and operational. Among these, 206 projects address sewage infrastructure, with ₹33,003.63 crore sanctioned, resulting in 127 completed projects that significantly mitigate pollution. Additionally, 56 projects focused on biodiversity and afforestation have been undertaken, with 39 successfully concluded, enhancing the ecological balance of the Ganga basin.

Recent initiatives include the approval of a project for intercepting and diverting the Durga Drain (Durga Drain is one of the major open drains in Varanasi that carries untreated sewage and wastewater and discharges it directly into the Ganga River) and constructing a 60 MLD sewage treatment plant in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, at a cost of ₹274.31 crore. This project aims to improve wastewater management and pollution control in the region.

5. State-Level Initiatives

Several states have implemented their own water conservation programs. For example, ‘Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan’ in Rajasthan focuses on water harvesting and groundwater recharge, while ‘Mission Kakatiya’ in Telangana aims to restore irrigation tanks.

The Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan (MJSA), launched by the Rajasthan government in 2016, aims to tackle water scarcity and promote self-sufficiency in water management through the innovative “Four Waters” concept. This approach focuses on harvesting runoff from rainwater, groundwater, underground water, and in-situ soil moisture to enhance water availability, particularly in rural areas. The initiative prioritizes creating water-sustainable villages, increasing groundwater levels, expanding irrigated areas, and ensuring effective water conservation through community participation. The first phase of MJSA successfully implemented water conservation strategies across the state until its conclusion in 2018.

Recognizing the persistent water challenges, the Rajasthan government reintroduced the program as MJSA 2.0 in February 2024. This renewed initiative aims to construct 500,000 water harvesting structures across 20,000 villages over the next four years, with an allocated budget of ₹11,200 crore. The first phase focuses on developing 5,000 villages with a budget of ₹3,500 crore. In urban areas, the program emphasizes rainwater harvesting, reviving traditional water bodies, afforestation, public awareness campaigns, and incentivizing private participation.

The scheme integrates resources from government departments, NGOs, corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds, and community contributions to develop village-level water budgets and ensure long-term sustainability. Overall, MJSA and its renewed version, MJSA 2.0, aim to make Rajasthan self-reliant in water conservation through sustainable practices, infrastructure development, and community-driven initiatives.

Mission Kakatiya, launched by the Telangana government in 2015, aims to restore over 46,000 minor irrigation tanks across the state, drawing from historical water management practices. Reports indicate a 78.5% increase in household agricultural income in tank ayacut (It refers to the area of land that is irrigated by a particular water source, such as a tank or canal system. Tank ayacut area = Land that gets water for farming from a specific irrigation tank) areas, a 36%–39% rise in fish yields, and a 36% reduction in artificial fertilizer usage due to desiltation efforts. Additionally, groundwater levels have shown improvement. While these outcomes suggest positive trends, challenges persist in ensuring equitable water distribution and sustaining community participation, emphasizing the need for continued efforts in long-term water management.

The Social Progress Index (SPI) report, submitted to the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, acknowledges Mission Kakatiya for its role in improving groundwater levels and water availability in Telangana. The report notes that 23 districts in the state fall under the ‘safe’ category for groundwater extraction, while Hyderabad and Rajanna Sircilla are categorized as ‘overexploited.’ It also highlights the program’s decentralized approach and community participation in water resource management.

The table below provides a summary of the various state-level initiatives in water conservation and management.

State	Program Name	Launch Year	Budget (₹ crore)	Key Features
Rajasthan	Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan (MJSA)	2016	6,000 (approx.)	Rainwater harvesting, watershed management, and rejuvenation of traditional water bodies.
Maharashtra	Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan	2014	9,600 (approx.)	Deepening and widening of streams, desilting, and creation of small water storage structures.
Gujarat	Sujalam Sufalam Jal Abhiyan	2018	2,275 (approx.)	Desilting of water bodies, check dams, and community participation in water conservation
Telangana	Mission Kakatiya	2015	22,000 (planned over 5 years)	Restoration of tanks, lakes, and traditional irrigation structures to improve groundwater levels.
Karnataka	Jaladhare	2017	53,000 (planned)	Ensures drinking water supply through rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge.
Tamil Nadu	Kudimaramathu Scheme	2017	500 (initial phase)	Community-based restoration of tanks and traditional water bodies.
Madhya Pradesh	Kapil Dhara Yojana	2006	1,800 (approx.)	Provides financial assistance to small farmers for well and irrigation infrastructure.
Uttar Pradesh	Uttar Pradesh Water Conservation Mission	2019	Not publicly specified	Focuses on river rejuvenation, watershed management, and efficient irrigation.
Haryana	Mera Pani Meri Virasat	2020	500 (approx.)	Encourages farmers to switch from water-intensive crops (like paddy) to water-efficient alternatives.
Punjab	Pani Bachao Paisa Kamao	2018	200 (approx.)	Incentivizes farmers to use less groundwater for irrigation through direct financial benefits.

Global Case Studies: Lessons for India

Water conservation and management are critical challenges worldwide, and several countries have implemented innovative strategies to address them. As India faces increasing water scarcity, declining groundwater levels, and the need for sustainable water use, examining successful global models can offer valuable insights. From Israel’s advanced water recycling systems to Singapore’s holistic water management approach, these international examples demonstrate how technology, policy interventions, and community participation can enhance water security. By studying and adapting these global best practices, India can develop more effective and resilient water management strategies to ensure long-term sustainability.

1. Israel: Pioneering Water Innovation

Israel is a global leader in water conservation, despite being a water-scarce country. Israel has implemented several innovative strategies to address water scarcity. Key innovations include:

• Desalination: Approximately 75% of Israel’s drinking water is sourced from desalinated Mediterranean seawater. Israel meets a significant portion of its water needs through desalination plants, which convert seawater into potable water.

• Wastewater Recycling: The nation treats and reuses nearly 90% of its wastewater, primarily for agricultural irrigation. Over 90% of Israel’s wastewater is treated and reused for agriculture, making it a global benchmark.

• Drip Irrigation: Pioneered in Israel, this method delivers water directly to plant roots, enhancing efficiency and reducing waste. Developed in Israel, this technology has revolutionized agriculture by delivering water directly to plant roots, reducing wastage.

• Water Management Reforms: Comprehensive policies, including water pricing and regulation, have been enacted to promote conservation and ensure sustainable use.

These measures have positioned Israel as a global leader in sustainable water management.

Relevance to India: Israel’s water conservation strategies offer valuable insights for India, which faces water scarcity and high agricultural demand. Israel recycles 90% of its wastewater, mainly for irrigation, a model India can adopt to reduce groundwater dependence. With 60% of its domestic water needs met through desalination, Israel demonstrates how India’s coastal cities can expand desalination for urban supply. Israel’s drip irrigation system has significantly reduced water use in farming, a technique India can promote to improve agricultural efficiency. Additionally, Israel leverages IoT, AI, and satellite technology for real-time water management, which India can integrate into its water monitoring systems. Strict water pricing and public awareness campaigns in Israel also encourage conservation, providing a framework India can adapt to ensure sustainable water use.

2. Singapore: Integrated Water Management

Singapore, another water-scarce nation, employs a comprehensive approach to water conservation and management, integrating multiple strategies to ensure a sustainable water supply. Singapore’s water strategy is built on four sources: local catchment water, imported water, reclaimed water (NEWater), and desalinated water. This diversification enhances water security and resilience.

• NEWater: Singapore’s NEWater, introduced in 2002, is high-grade reclaimed water purified using membrane and UV technologies, transforming treated wastewater into ultra-clean water. As of 2023, it supplies 40% of the nation’s water needs, with plans to expand to 55% by 2060. Singapore also promotes water sustainability through initiatives like NEWBrew, a beer made from NEWater, showcased at UN climate talks. Ongoing research focuses on biomimetic membranes to enhance efficiency and reduce energy consumption. These innovations reinforce Singapore’s commitment to water security.

• ABC Waters Program: Singapore’s ABC Waters Programme, launched in 2006 by its utility, Public Utilities Board (PUB), transforms waterways into community spaces, enhancing biodiversity and flood resilience. Key projects include Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park, where a concrete canal was converted into a natural river. As of 2017, 36 projects were completed, with recent developments at Sungei Ulu Pandan, featuring habitat cells to attract wildlife. The initiative continues to improve urban liveability and water sustainability. 

• Public Awareness Campaigns: Singapore has successfully engaged citizens in water conservation through education and incentives. Singapore’s PUB has run water conservation campaigns since 1971. In March 2024, the “Save Water. Big ways, small ways. All OK!” campaign encouraged everyday water-saving habits. By March 2025, PUB launched “Our Water Makes Every Moment Count”, reinforcing shared responsibility for water conservation. Despite efforts, daily per capita water use rose from 141L (2023) to 142L (2024), highlighting the need for sustained awareness.

• Water Demand Management: Singapore promotes water efficiency through initiatives like the Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme (WELS), which mandates efficiency ratings for water fittings and appliances. The Climate Friendly Household Programme provides vouchers for purchasing water-efficient products. In the non-domestic sector, large water users must submit Water Efficiency Management Plans to monitor and optimize usage.

• Water Pricing: Singapore’s water pricing reflects its scarcity, promoting conservation through an increasing block tariff system, where higher consumption incurs higher rates. A 30% price hike in 2017–2018 and an 18% increase in 2024–2025 ensure sustainable cost recovery. These measures balance demand and supply while funding water infrastructure.

• Technological Innovations: Singapore boosts water sustainability through NEWater, which reclaims wastewater into ultra-clean water, meeting 40% of demand (target: 55% by 2060). It also operates five desalination plants (Singapore operates five desalination plants using reverse osmosis, converting seawater into potable water. The process consumes 3.5 kWh/m³, with ongoing efficiency improvements) to convert seawater into potable water. These innovations support its Four National Taps strategy for long-term water security.

NEWBrew, a beer made from NEWater, showcases Singapore’s reclaimed water innovation. Unveiled at COP29 United Nations climate summit in Baku, Azerbaijan, it promotes recycled water acceptance and highlights sustainable water management. With limited natural water sources, Singapore relies on recycling, desalination, and catchment for water security.

Relevance to India: Singapore’s water conservation model offers valuable insights for India, which faces rising water demand and scarcity. India can expand wastewater reuse, taking inspiration from Singapore’s NEWater, and invest in desalination for coastal water security. Implementing tiered water tariffs can curb excessive use, while IoT-based smart monitoring can improve leak detection and efficiency, complementing initiatives like Jal Jeevan Mission. Public awareness campaigns promoting rainwater harvesting and reuse can further enhance conservation efforts. Adapting these strategies can help India manage its water resources more efficiently amid growing urbanization and climate challenges.

In conclusion, water conservation is a critical challenge for India, given its growing population, increasing demand, and depleting water resources. The government has taken significant steps through initiatives like Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Atal Bhujal Yojana, and Namami Gange Programme, which focus on groundwater recharge, river rejuvenation, and efficient water management. State-led efforts such as Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan in Rajasthan and Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan in Maharashtra further emphasize the need for localized water conservation strategies. However, sustainable water management requires active participation from individuals, industries, and communities. By adopting responsible water usage, promoting rainwater harvesting, and supporting conservation efforts, India can secure its water future and ensure long-term environmental and economic sustainability.

Annexure

State/Union Territory	Notable Highlights
Andhra Pradesh	Enacted the Andhra Pradesh Water, Land and Trees Act, 2002, integrating groundwater regulation with surface water management and environmental concerns. The Act includes provisions for protecting public drinking water sources and mandates water recycling for industrial purposes.
Assam	Implemented groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill. https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/21-states-uts-adopted-groundwater-legislation-govt-tells-lok-sabha-123072000838_1.html
Bihar	Introduced the Bihar Groundwater (Regulation and Control of Development and Management) Act, 2006, aiming to regulate and control groundwater development and management. https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/bihar-groundwater-regulation-and-control-development-and-management-act-2006
Goa	Enacted the Goa Groundwater Regulation Act, 2002, to manage and regulate groundwater resources.
Haryana	Passed the Haryana Water Resources (Conservation, Regulation and Management) Authority Act, 2020, establishing an authority to regulate water resources and promote conservation.
Himachal Pradesh	Implemented the Himachal Pradesh Groundwater (Regulation and Control of Development and Management) Act, 2005, and subsequent rules in 2006 to manage groundwater resources.
Karnataka	Adopted groundwater legislation based on Karnataka Ground Water (Regulation and Control of Development and Management) Act, 2011.
Kerala	Enacted the Kerala Groundwater (Control and Regulation) Act, 2002, to regulate groundwater extraction and use.
Maharashtra	Introduced the Maharashtra Groundwater (Regulation for Drinking Water Purposes) Act, 1993, focusing on protecting public drinking water sources by regulating well construction within certain limits.
Nagaland	Implemented groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Odisha	Adopted groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Punjab	Passed the Punjab Water Resources (Management and Regulation) Act, 2020, establishing an authority to manage and regulate water resources.
Tamil Nadu	The Tamil Nadu Groundwater (Development and Management) Act, 2003, aimed to regulate groundwater use but faced opposition from farmers and industries over access concerns. As a result, it was never fully implemented. The government later opted for alternative policies, leading to its repeal, allowing groundwater extraction under existing regulations without the Act’s restrictions.
Telangana	Implemented groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Uttar Pradesh	Enacted the Uttar Pradesh Ground Water (Management and Regulation) Act, 2019, establishing authorities at various levels to manage and regulate groundwater resources.
West Bengal	Passed the West Bengal Groundwater Resources (Management, Control & Regulation) Act, 2005, to manage and regulate groundwater resources.
Chandigarh	Implemented regulations and bylaws for groundwater management.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	Adopted groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Jammu and Kashmir	Implemented groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Ladakh	Adopted groundwater legislation based on the Model Bill.
Lakshadweep	Enacted the Lakshadweep (Development & Control) Groundwater Regulations, 2001, to regulate groundwater development.
Puducherry	Passed the Pondicherry (Control & Regulation) Groundwater Act, 2002, to manage groundwater resources.

Also read: Reclaiming the water | Chat with Vikas Brahmavar and Gowthaman Desingh, co-founders at Boson White Water

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